. The objective of the project is to investigate long term changes (at least several- month long) in stream flow patterns due to precipitation in a particular watershed.  will analyze a different watershed for which stream flow data and precipitation data are available for the specific period, and present results in a written paper. Watersheds and time periods of analysis should be selected to answer a question about changes in stream flows in response to changes in crop production practices or urbanization or IDF curve development.  The paper will include

1. An abstract (overview of your work and conclusion)
2. An introduction (that will provide a statement of objective and justification for the watershed and time period selected)
3. Descriptive information on the watershed (size, location, land cover) and data sources
4. Hydrological analysis of this watershed (real precipitation and flow data for the specific watershed must be presented, and this part must include detailed calculation between precipitation and runoff flow).
5. Results, discussion of results, including discussion of scientific articles that provide relevant explanation for any of the patterns observed. 
6. References (including all citations you used in your report)

The paper should be about 12 pages (Time new roman, 12) in length. 

Grading Standards:

1.  The written report will be double-spaced. The first part should concisely describe the nature of the problem that will be addressed.
2. Components of Project
1. Well-organized structure
2. Abstract
3. Introduction

                                               i.      Statement of objective

                                             ii.     Justification of the watershed you selected

                                            iii.     Literature review of hydrologic analysis of the watershed

                                            iv.     Quality of writing

1. Descriptive information on the watershed (size, location, land cover, show a decent geographical map, and data sources
2. Hydrological analysis of this watershed

                                               i.     Real precipitation and flow data in a table for the specific watershed

                                             ii.     Detailed calculation of precipitation, runoff flow and other hydrological processes (e.g., IDF curve development).

1. Results and Conclusions

                                               i.     Results analysis of your calculation including some figures such as hydrograph hyetograph, IDF curves (for design concerns) etc.

                                             ii.     Show your conclusion based on your analysis

1. Reference need to use websites like USGS ,NOAA, USDA, ARS, AND USNRCS
2. ALSO THE PROJECTS HAS TO HAVE ALL THE REQUIREMENTS 

 

PROJECT ONE EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS As the head of one of our city’s departments, you have been invited to a multi-level marketing party at the Governor’s mansion. As part of the welcoming speech by the Governor, you are told a bit about our city’s history. A small band native people (known as the Seisms) lived in the region, but never built permanent structures where is our town is now centered. The Seisms called the area Teh-emblo-rhils. Explorers reached the area about 150 years ago and finding the land fertile, and the climate suitable, began to build a town. One of the early settlers translated the Seism name for the area to mean “Swiftly flowing waters which move past gently rolling hills”. Since the translation so aptly described the area, the Seism name was quickly adopted, although it was slightly westernized in the process. Thus our city is now known as Temblor Hills. As soon as the Governor finished his introductory speech, an elderly Seisms chief approached. With a concerned tone in his voice, the chief explained that the translation was wrong and that there was a good reason why the Seisms didn’t stay in the area permanently. The actual translation should have been “Raging waters that sweep over violently shaking hills”. Hearing this, the Governor hastily reorganized the gathered department heads to begin the process of determining what to do. The Problem: The United States Geological Survey (USGS) performed an emergency survey of the area at the Governor’s request. They found a large fault zone directly beneath the city, with many subordinate faults in association with the main fault. Based on geologic records and current measurements, the USGS determined that the maximum credible earthquake within our city limits is magnitude 7.8. There is great uncertainty about the frequency of large seismic events. Many structures are more than 30 years old and since there were no perceived seismic hazards present at the time of construction, it is believed that significant damage could occur during even a small to moderate earthquake (magnitude 5.0 to 7.0). The citizens are ill-informed of seismic dangers at this time. The Setting: The topography of the region is characterized by low lying hills to the east with a gently sloping plain that meets the ocean at Tsunami Bay. The town is situated predominantly on the plain between the Richter River to the south and the Seism River to the north. The population of the affected region is around 400,000, and is growing at a moderate pace. There is some light to moderate industrial activity in the town. A large international shipping port is located at Tsunami Bay. A railroad system provides the bulk of our land-based shipping, and a commuter rail system shares some of the same tracks within the city limits. A modern airport is located across the Seism River that handles approximately 35 flights per day of large carriers, plus numerous flights of small aircraft. The airport also provides international service on a limited basis, about five flights per week. About 60% of our electricity is generated at the Seiche Dam which is located on a canyon of the Richter River approximately 5 miles from the city. The reservoir impounded by the dam also provides nearly all of our drinking water. The city maintains three water wells within the city, but because of the concern for saltwater intrusion, they are only operated on an emergency basis, and are tested annually. The remainder of our electricity is generated by the nuclear power plant located to the south of the Richter River. The nuclear power plant obtains its coolant and process water from the river, except during periods of low water discharge from the dam. During those times, the water is supplied by underground pipes that run to the plant from the dam. Adjacent to the nuclear power plant is a large tank farm for the storage of various grades of petroleum products that are offloaded at the port. We have fully equipped and trained police and fire departments. The fire department equipment includes a fireboat to protect the port facilities. A well-staffed hospital is centrally located in the downtown area and has limited heliport capabilities. All power, water, sewer, cable TV, telephone and natural gas lines are buried underground within the city limits. There are several elementary and junior high schools in town. There is one large high school that is home to the best maintained football field and gymnasium. The primary schools have much smaller playgrounds, and no gymnasiums. The pride of our downtown area is the new Civic Center. The large complex is composed of conference, banquet and hotel rooms, restaurants, a theater, and a main exhibition hall. The city has put forth a great effort to attract conventions to the Civic Center with much success. The Civic Center averages three conventions or large gatherings per month. The residential area is generally to the east of downtown, however some of the older homes are located within the business district. There are a few large apartment complexes which are sprinkled around the city. Residential structures are divided thus, approximately 60% single family homes, 10% duplexes, 30% apartment complexes. The Solution: As the head of one of the city’s departments, you have been requested to prepare your department and our city for the maximum credible earthquake. You will work individually and in small groups to prepare your plan. The written plan for your department will be turned in for grading purposes. You choose the format. Part I: The Basic Outline of Your Plan for Temblor Hills: Identify what you already know – your department’s capabilities, assets and limitations and particular hazards you may face, along with those of our city as they relate to your department. Identify what you need to know – prioritized information that you need to acquire to effectively deal with this situation. Identify what you’d like to know – items or information that you’d like to have if time and money were no object. Identify the steps you will take to prepare your department and, in cooperation with other departments, our city. Indicate how you will allocate your resources in completing these steps (manpower, finances, timing). This will include instructions to employees as to what they will do before, during, and after an earthquake. If you have agreements with other departments, it must be included here. Identify the steps you would like to take if time and money were no object, OR identify areas of concern that you are not able to mitigate effectively. Part II: Your Personal Plan for Your Real Life Situation: Outline steps you can (or will) take to mitigate hazards around your home or office before an emergency. The plan should be general enough to accommodate a variety of possible emergencies (earthquake, fire, flood, etc). Include your floor plan drawing with the hazards identified (see attachment). List the contents of what you would (or will) include in an emergency kit. Develop a plan for yourself and your family that you will follow in the event of an emergency. Include important phone numbers, meeting places, contact names, evacuation routes, and any other information that might be specific to your situation. I UST ALR EA ND R A I APT APT R H R IV R IC TE R E R EIS S M RIVE TSUNAMI BAY TANK FARM HIG WAY H RA D ILROA SEICHE DAM RESERVOIR PORT FACILITY R A UCL A N E L NT P AIRPORT TERMINAL PARKING T R S D N A A EA E E I L I R S B S NE S D S R CT U I I T I C CIVI C N E E T R P COM LEX FD FD PD HOSP E CH S L C L E H S E CHL S E SCHL L H CH S S L H CH A E ION PA K R G L R H G A I HW Y I RA LROAD HILLS HILLS TEMBLOR HILLS FD = FIRE DEPARTMENT PD = POLICE DEPARTMENT E SCHL = ELEMENTARY SCHOOL H SCHL = HIGH SCHOOL APT = APARTMENT COMPLEX = HIGHWAY = SURFACE STREETS = RAILROAD Waste Water Treatment Plant Sanitary Landfill EARTHQUAKES This assignment may be used to fulfill one journal entry (modeling type). 1. Draw a floor plan to scale of your home showing all primary rooms, doorways, exits, windows, etc. 2. Identify potential hazards in and around your home and indicate them on the floor plan. Use a color or number code for the hazards and include a key to explain what the colors or numbers signify. Example: Number 1 (or color red) indicates a danger of falling objects 3. Write out a list of the five (5) main hazards and a brief explanation as to why they pose a hazard. Example: Gasoline container in shop. It is on a shelf in a glass jar near the propane water heater. If it fell and broke it could lead to an explosion and fire. 4. Rank the significance of the five (5) main hazards and explain your ranking as it relates to your exposure. Example: Hazard #1 – Gasoline container in shop. I spend part of my day (five hours per day on average) in the garage making cabinets. I have a long exposure period to this potential hazard. Humans are incompatible with uncontrolled fire. 5. Pick the top three (3) hazards and list some specific steps you can take to remove or reduce the threat of the hazard. Example: Mitigation for Hazard #1 Put gasoline in a proper container (plastic or metal, and properly labeled). Move container away from source of ignition. Store container such that it is not likely to fall and break. Move to lower shelves or floor.

Based on what you have read, do you believe that pollution standards should be established for bottled water? What arguments most influenced your decision? How would you explain your position to someone who disagrees with you?

The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) is the authoritative source of information about all types of bottled waters. Founded in 1958, IBWA’s membership includes U.S. and international bottlers, distributors and suppliers. IBWA is committed to working with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which regulates bottled water as a packaged food product, and state governments to set stringent standards for safe, high quality bottled water products. Additionally, IBWA requires member bottlers to adhere to the IBWA Bottled Water Code of Practice, which mandates additional standards and practices, that in some cases, are more stringent than federal and state regulations. A key feature of the IBWA Model Code is an annual unannounced plant inspection by an independent, third party organization. For more information about IBWA, bottled water and a list of member’s brands, please contact IBWA Manager of Communications Tom Gardner at 703-647-4607 or tgardner@bottledwater.org.

 

Full Text

ALEXANDRIA, Va., April 9 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ — The InternationalBottled Water Association (IBWA), in conjunction with Beverage MarketingCorporation (BMC), today released bottled water statistics for the year 2006,compiled by BMC. These numbers show that U.S. bottled water sales andconsumption continue to rise, as consumers increasingly choose bottled waterover other beverages.

 

The latest upward trend was reflected in 2006 when total bottled water volume exceeded 8.25 billion gallons, a 9.5 percent increase over 2005, and the 2006 bottled water per capita consumption level of 27.6 gallons increased by over two gallons, from 25.4 gallons per capita the previous year. Additionally, the wholesale dollar sales for bottled water exceeded $10.8 billion in 2006, an 8.5 percent increase over the $10 billion in 2005. These statistics demonstrate continued consumer demand and appreciation for the convenience and good taste of bottled water brands consumed on-the-go, during exercise, at restaurants or meetings, and at home or the office. However, consumers should also know that bottled water safety and quality result from multiple layers of regulation and standards at the federal, state and industry levels.

 

Bottled water is comprehensively regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a packaged food product, and has issued stringent standards for safety, quality, production, labeling, and identity. Along with the FDA’s Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), which are required of all foods, bottled water must comply with several other applicable regulations, including Standards of Identity, Standards of Quality and additional, specific bottled water GMPs. Being a packaged food product, bottled water is also bound by the Nutrition Labeling Education Act (NLEA) and the full range of FDA protective measures designed to enforce product safety and protect consumers. States also regulate bottled water inspections, sampling, analyzing and approving bottled water sources. Testing laboratory certification is another area where states may regulate bottled water. As part of the IBWA Bottled Water Code of Practice, IBWA members voluntarily utilize the principles of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) for a science-based approach to bottled water production and safety. FDA recognizes HACCP as a key component of food safety and consumer protection.

 

“While all beverages have their role in a marketplace with an abundance of drink choices,” says Stephen R. Kay, IBWA Vice President of Communications, “consumers are choosing bottled water as a refreshing, hydrating beverage and as an alternative to others that may contain calories, caffeine, sugar, artificial colors, alcohol or other ingredients, which they wish to moderate or avoid. For instance, during 2006, individual servings of bottled water in sizes of 1.5 liters and smaller accounted for 57.1% of the volume of bottled water sold, indicating that consumers are choosing bottled water in lieu of other bottled drinks.”

 

For an overview of bottled water regulations and standards and other bottled water information, visit the IBWA web site at http://www.bottledwater.org.

 

The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) is the authoritative source of information about all types of bottled waters. Founded in 1958, IBWA’s membership includes U.S. and international bottlers, distributors and suppliers. IBWA is committed to working with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which regulates bottled water as a packaged food product, and state governments to set stringent standards for safe, high quality bottled water products. Additionally, IBWA requires member bottlers to adhere to the IBWA Bottled Water Code of Practice, which mandates additional standards and practices, that in some cases, are more stringent than federal and state regulations. Whether it is for health reasons, drinking those requisite eight glasses a day, or to avoid chemicals and pollutants from the public water supply, bottled water has come into its own as the beverage of choice. Although tap water quality and taste may be acceptable, its questionable variables make bottled and home-purified water look better.

 

Full text

Headnote

earthwatch

 

Headnote

Why bottles and purifiers really hold water

 

View Image – 

There was a time when we scoffed at the idea of bottled water. After all, why buy water when you can get it from the tap, seemingly for free? Times have changed, however. Today’s health-conscious consumers, even kids, are toting bottles of water. Whether it’s for health reasons, drinking those requisite eight glasses a day, or to avoid chemicals and pollutants from the public water supply, water has come into its own as the beverage of choice.

 

And it’s not only just plain ol’ spring water, either. The past few years have given us myriad waters to choose from-glacial, artesian, oxygen-enriched, purified and even functional water that’s been fortified with vitamins, minerals or herbs. Bottled is certainly popular-it’s a $5 billion dollar business in the U.S., alone.

 

In fact, its popularity is growing so rapidly that it’s poised, in this decade, to become the second largest beverage segment after soft drinks says Jonathan Hall, publisher of “The Hall Water Report.” But is bottled water really better?

 

WATER BUGS

 

Americans are definitely turning off the tap, partly in response to the quality-inconsistency of municipal water supplies. In 1993, a water-borne outbreak of Cryptosporidium in Milwaukee, Wisc., caused an estimated 400,000 residents to become ill with flulike symptoms, leading to several deaths among those who were immune-impaired. Cryptosporidium, a waterborne parasite that thrives in animals and is transferred through animal waste, has been found in rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs and in other types of surface water.

 

That’s not all. An August 29, 2001 report put out by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Developing Strategy for Waterborne Microbial Disease,” says that the “consequences of microbial [bacterial and parasitic] contamination are severe.”

 

WHAT’S IN YOUR WATER?

 

Adequate chlorination kills much of the harmful bacteria in water, but this chemical process can produce trihalomethanes (THMs), which are cancer-causing compounds formed when chlorine interacts with organic matter. Meanwhile, toxic waste, agricultural pesticides and heavy metals continue to cloud our water supply. Even if your municipal water supply is safe, home water delivery systems are suspect: Water pipes can contain harmful amounts of lead, copper, radon and other contaminants that can leach into your water supply.

 

One such contaminant called Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE), is a chemical compound that is created through the chemical reaction of methanol and isobutylene and has been mainly used as a fuel additive oxygenate that raises the oxygen content of gasoline.

 

Unfortunately, the EPA has found that “a growing number of studies have detected MTBE in ground water throughout the country, and above 40 parts per billion (ppb) may cause cancer or other unknown adverse health effects.”

 

A CLEAR CHOICE

 

Is bottled better than what’s on tap in our faucets? According to an August 2000 study by the water-industry Internet portal, Bottled Water Web, Consumer Focus, “Sixty-one percent of Americans believe bottled water to be healthier than tap water, and out of that 61 percent, 53 percent believe that tap water has some contamination or chemicals that are not present in bottled water.”

 

Aside from consumer perception, the truth is that bottled water is strictly regulated at the federal level by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), as well as at the state level. Tap water is also regulated as a utility by the EPA, while bottled water is regulated by the FDA as a pure food product and must satisfy all applicable food-packaging regulations.

 

The bottled-water industry is self-regulated. In fact, members of the International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) -which oversees the production of about 85 percent of the bottled water sold in the U.S.-must meet strict IBWA standards more stringent than the FDA’s own regulations.

 

Therefore, most bottled-water companies use one or more the following practices and technologies:

 

1) Source protection and monitoring

 

2) Reverse osmosis

 

3) Distillation

 

4) Ozone treatment, known as ozonation

 

5) Disinfection, such as chlorination

 

Although tap water quality and taste may be acceptable, its questionable variables make bottled and home-purified water look better. In fact, while 75 percent of all bottled water comes from protected sources such as springs, tap water comes primarily from rivers and lakes, sources of unpredictable purity.

 

THE BOTTOM LINE?

 

Hydration. No matter what type of water you choose, or what source you get it from, be certain to drink at least eight glasses of water each day.

 

A recent study that was commissioned by the Nutrition Information Center at New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in New York City, found that only 20 percent of respondents meet the important “eight a day” recommendation. Barbara Levine, Ph.D., R.D., director of the Center, says, “The net result is that most Americans are probably only getting about a third of the valuable hydration benefits they need.

 

In fact, babies, toddlers and pregnant women are at a special risk for dehydration. Parents should monitor the fluid intake of infants and toddlers since they’re unable to express thirst.

 

Even older children will often not stop to take a drink and need to be reminded to take “water breaks” on a regular basis. Pregnant women need to accommodate the fluid needs of their developing babies; nursing mothers need to replace lost fluids, too.

 

The vast majority of Americans are not drinking enough water to begin with and, to make matters worse, many of them don’t realize that beverages containing alcohol and caffeine rob the body of water.”

 

Levine adds, “The consumption of water and other hydrating beverages is crucial for proper retention and use of the body’s water in complex and intricate biochemical processes.” In other words, hydrate, hydrate, hydrate!

 

Water Webs

 

AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION, www.awra.org/index.html

 

AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION, www.awwa.org

 

THE BOTTLED WATER WEB, www.bottledwaterweb.com

 

THE INTERNATIONAL BOTTLED WATER ASSOCIATION (IBWA), www.bottledwater.org

 

SPIRIT OF THE I-AND FOUNDA[ION, http://greatspirit.earth.com/bio-com.html

 

WATER TECHNOLOGY MAGAZINE, www.waternet.com

 

Sidebar

Drink Tank-About Water Sources

 

Sidebar

Did you buy your last bottle of water because of the pristine meadows or frosty glacier depicted on the label? Those pretty pictures don’t always hold water. Chances are, your favorite beverage came from tap water bottled at a giant plant, not a bubbling stream in the Swiss Alps.

 

The truth is: Municipal water is used as a source for nearly a quarter of the bottled water sold in the United States. Granted, it has been purified with reverse osmosis or other filtration treatments, but it doesn’t come right from the source. The label “purified” or “drinking water” usually means you’re looking at a bottle of treated tap water.

 

There are many growing special categories of water, however. Dasani, manufactured by CocaCola, is processed municipal water to which minerals have been added. Trinity water is from a pure, geothermal spring and is approved as a dietary supplement. Penta, produced by BioHydration Research Lab, is marketed for the molecular originality of its water, what’s termed “structured micro-clustered.”

 

The FDA has fairly specific definitions for water in its Standards of Identity: “glacial” water must come from a glacier; “spring” water from a spring; “artesian” water must flow above the water table; and “naturally sparkling water” has to come from a natural carbonated spring. The term 11 natural” can be used for bottled water from springs or wells where the natural chemical composition of the water has not been altered as a result of the treatment process.In 2004, Jonathan Ritchey and Rick Howard joined forces to address the loss of one of the world’s most precious resources: water. The majority of the planet is covered with water (326 million cubic miles), yet only 3% is fresh water and even less is accessible to humans. Element Four is Ritchey and Howard’s answer – a company devoted to easing the global fresh-water shortage. Their product, the WaterMill, converts air into potable water through condensation followed by antimicrobial processes. The water then travels to various “points-of-use systems” such as home faucets and refrigerators. Ideally, the WaterMill will produce 3.2 gallons of water per day – enough to meet the needs of a family of six. And at an average operating cost of 35 cents per day, it far surpasses in cost-effectiveness the price of bottled water. The point is to alleviate the environmental burden of bottled water, while placing control of fresh water sources into the hands of consumers.

 

The WaterMill is at the intersection of technology, environmentalism and philanthropy. Though the company’s target demographic will initially consist of suburbanites, Howard and Ritchey envision adapting the product for worldwide use. “With a minimum relative humidity, die WaterMill can be of benefit to any consumer in almost any environment, and this is where Element Four can have a global impact on the water crisis,” says Howard.

 

Available in February, it is die first in an upcoming line of products that will include a solar-powered version of the WaterMill as well as the WaterWall, a large-scale adaptation for use on an industrial scale.

 

CONTACT: Element Four, www.elementfour.com.

 

– Astrid M. Krogstad

 

Sidebar

THIRST: In the city of Mumbai, India, huge population expansion has combined with widespread pollution and lack of potable water. In this chy, the poorest of the poor pay disproportionately more for their water.

 

Word count: 306

Copyright Earth Action Network, Inc. Jan/Feb 2009

 

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[…] after big client meetings, she Jl collected all the empty mm plastic water bottles, took them home and added them to her own curbside recycling bin. High school activists are raising questions about why their school board members are locking them into a contract with Coke or Pepsi (makers of Aquafina and Dasani bottled water) when they have access to drinking fountains for free. Now that more people are trying get out of the bottled water habit, groups like Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) and EWG wonder if this new awareness will translate into more support for public water supplies, and for water conservation in general.

 

Full Text

Jennifer Phillips always felt guilty that her large Nashville law firm didn’t recycle. So after big client meetings, she Jl collected all the empty mm plastic water bottles, took them home and added them to her own curbside recycling bin. Now, she is proud to report that her firm, Bass, Berry & Sims, serves an icy pitcher of tap water during meetings. “We even have glasses with the company logo on them,” she says. Phillips estimates switching to tap keeps 3,000 plastic water bottles per week out of the landfill.

 

It’s a trend that is taking hold in the s U.S., Europe and Canada: more people are switching from bottled water to tap. Call it reverse snob appeal. Bottled water once carried a certain European mystique. But these days, it’s the tap water enthusiasts, concerned about the environment, who get to act self-righteous. Just like it has become cool to bring your own cloth bags to the grocery store and your own mug to the coffee shop, the reusable water bottle is the hip, new eco accessory.

 

It’s because people like Phillips and David WiIk, a Connecticut book publisher and tap water activist, have started to connect the dots. For WiIk, it happened on the soccer field. After his sons finished their games, he noticed the grass was littered with bottled water and Gatorade empties. Pretty soon, WiIk started showing up with a huge container of tap water. Now all the kids bring their own bottles and fill up when thirsty.

 

“We have such a consumption mentality, which leads to our throw-away society,” says WiIk, who started the website Turntotap.com to build more support for public water supplies and to cut down on the amount of plastic going into landfills. “I think the cost of our behavior should be built into the. products,” WiIk says.

 

A Gathering Revolt

 

In Canada, the bottled water issue has become, as WiIk says, an “uprising.” College students are staging protests-declaring “bottled water-free zones” on campus. High school activists are raising questions about why their school board members are locking them into a contract with Coke or Pepsi (makers of Aquafina and Dasani bottled water) when they have access to drinking fountains for free. Some students have jokingly started to sell bottled air for $1.

 

In an even bolder move, the United Church of Canada asked its three million members to consider banning bottled water during meetings and events. “We just had a lot of concerns about governance and accountability,” says Julie Graham, who leads the anti-bottled water campaign for a Toronto ecumenical activist group called Kairos. “Why is it people in Canada are willing to pay twice as much for bottled water as for gasoline? We started challenging that and raising questions about billions of empty bottles going into landfills.”

 

Others, like Richard Girard, a corporate researcher for the Ottowa-based Polaris Institute, don’t like the hypocrisy I they perceive in the bottled water marketing. “This movement is gaining momentum because the general public is starting to figure out bottled water is a scam,” says Girard. More than half of all bottled water is simply filtered tap anyway, he argues. And some of it is actually worse in quality because bottled water companies aren’t subject to the same strict oversight as public water supplies.

 

“We want the bottled water corporations to be held accountable for their actions,” Girard says. “These companies are essentially commodifying water. We hope we can force them to change and be more environmentally responsible.”

 

The trend away from bottled water also ties in with the Slow Food movement-as the restaurant industry tries to support local agriculture and cut down on extravagant energy used to ship imported foods from around the world. At Berkeley’s Chez Panisse, general manager Mike Kossa-Rienzi had his “a-ha” moment when he sat down and calculated how far the 25,000 bottles of sparkling Italian spring water he ordered had to travel through the air. “It really does not make sense to ship from all around the world when you have such good water in your backyard,” he says. “You have to think about the carbon imprint you’re making there.”

 

Another big push for the bottled water backlash came during World Water Day 2007, when San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom declared a ban on bottled water contracts for all city departments. Instead of bottled water vending machines, he installed large dispensers in city buildings that poured out pure tap water from the Sierra mountains. Other cities, from Chicago to Salt Lake, followed suit.

 

Just think about a bottled water brand like Fiji, says WiIk. On the company’s website, it says, “When it comes to drinking water, remote is very, very good.” If you think about it, WiIk says, it’s pretty arrogant to ask that Fiji water be flown 8,000 miles across the world just so North American yuppies can enjoy a slightly better taste.

 

Responding to rising criticism, the company launched the “Fiji Green” campaign. It partnered with Conservation International to go carbon negative, reduced packaging, committed to 100 percent recycled materials and has pledged money to protect the Sovi Basin rainforest in Fiji. A cynic would say the company is doing this because it can afford to-marketing Fiji water is an enormously profitable enterprise.

 

Bottled Waste

 

It takes 15 million barrels of oil per year to make all of the plastic water bottles in America, according to the Container Recycling Institute. Sending those bottles by air and truck uses even more fossil fuel.

 

Once people drain the bottles, they rarely recycle them because they’re often purchased at big concert venues or airports with no recycling bins. CRI says eight out of 10 water bottles end up in the landfill. The bottles that drift from landfills and litter streams are washing out to sea to form a huge raft of plastic debris in the center of the Pacfic that is twice the size of Texas.

 

It takes 1,000 years for plastic bottles to break down, CRI estimates. But when they do, they disintegrate into tiny bits. The green and blue bottles, especially, look like tasty food to fish and shorebirds. Scientists are finding these dead animals on the beach, with bellies full of plastic pellets.

 

If more states added deposits on bottled water bottles, it might spur recycling. Congressman Ed Markey (D-MA) has even proposed a national beverage bottle bill. But PET water bottles (short for polyethylene terephthalate) can only be recycled a few times. What about going back to refillable glass bordes? For one thing, they are heavy to ship. And Zero Waste expert Neil Seldman of the Institute for Local Self-Reliance doesn’t imagine anyone could persuade the beverage industry to go that route.

 

“They have always lobbied against it,” Seldman says. “The industry does not want to deal with it after people buy their productthey want to wash their hands of the containers.” That’s why it makes the most sense to avoid creating the waste in the first place by drinking tap from your own container, Seldman says.

 

Meanwhile, as drought spreads to North Carolina and Atlanta, residents are casting a suspicious eye on beverage companies like Coca Cola, which tap into local aquifers to rill their bottles. Nestle has been seeking environmental approval for what would be the largest water bottling plant in the U.S.- one million square feet in McCloud, California-against community protests. The company has had to significantly increase the amount it’s paying for the water (from $26 an acre-foot to $183) and limit its draw to 520 million gallons annually. It’s still battling opposition from residents concerned about the mega-plant’s effects on quality of life and outdoor recreation.

 

Bottled water industry groups, such as the International Bottled Water Association, say they are being unfairly targeted. They argue bottled water is a healthy alternative to sugary soda. And it can also be a lifesaver when disasters, such as Hurricane Katrina, strike. “It’s not really a bottled water vs. tap water world,” says IBWA spokesman Steven Kay. “Most people drink both. We think bottled water provides a good healthy choice.”

 

But industry marketing firms have had to do an about-face. “What’s interesting about the backlash,” says CRI Executive Director Betty McLaughlin, “is that the companies say ‘drink our water, not tap water.’ Now people are going back to tap and they’ve got to reposition themselves.” Companies are trying every angle, from claims of superior filtration to adding antioxidants (Snapple) and fruity flavors (Dasani and others).

 

Don’t Refill that Bottle!

 

The IBWA argues that bottled water companies are responding to environmental concerns by making lighter bottles that require less plastic in the manufacturing process. Kay says the industry does invest significant money to improve access to recycling at large public venues, such as airports and concert halls. Companies like Nalgene, Sigg and Brita are aggressively marketing their refillable bottles and home filters as a more responsible option.

 

When it comes to reusable bottles, however, consumers still need to do their homework. Research shows that clear bottles made of polycarbonate plastic (such as the original 32-ounce Nalgene) can leach bisphenol-A (BPA). This is an endocrine-disrupting chemical that acts like estrogen in the body. BPA essentially tricks your body into thinking it’s estrogen, says Washington State University Researcher Patricia Hunt. She discovered the dangers of BPA when some of her polycarbonate mouse cages started to leach BPA, causing infertility in female mice.

 

Since BPA has been linked to low sperm counts and an increased risk of breast and prostate cancer, scientists like vomSaal and Hunt suggest avoiding reusable bottles made from plastic. They also raise serious concerns about the potential for other plastic chemicals to leach out of typical PET water bottles-especially if they sit in the hot sun.

 

Hunt uses a stainless bottle brand called Klean Kantene, and Wilk’s website sells stainless guaranteed-not-to-leach SIGG bottles made in Switzerland. The trend away from bottled water may also boost sales of home filters. Water-quality experts say most tap water is fine to drink straight from the faucet-especially in cities like San Francisco, Seattle, New York City and Denver, where water comes from pristine mountain reservoirs. But in places that draw drinking water from lakes and rivers with sewer outfalls, it might make sense to install a filter. Sometimes rusty pipes or naturally occurring iron can also affect the taste.

 

It makes sense for anyone turning back to tap to become educated about the local public water supply. And since the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires frequent water quality reports, the data is easy to find. The Environmental Working Group (EWG) makes it easy with its Tap Water Database. You can plug in your zip code and find out whether your local water system is up to par.

 

Now that more people are trying get out of the bottled water habit, groups like Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) and EWG wonder if this new awareness will translate into more support for public water supplies, and for water conservation in general.

 

Once you kick the bottle, they say, the next step is to get educated and get involved-find out what your water system needs and start pushing your elected officials to bring more funds to bear on the problem. According to NRDC, the EPA has asked for billions of dollars for a public water supply needs assessment. But the Bush Administration has allocated only a small portion of that request, says NRDC attorney Mae Wu.

 

“People are very concerned about what’s in their water because we drink so much of it,” says Jane Houlihan, EWG’s vice president for research. “We’re advocating for more protection for the waters that are the source of what comes out of kitchen faucets.”